Scientists find water on sunlit surface of Moon
Washington: Scientists have confirmed, for the first time, the presence of water on the sunlit surface of the Moon, a discovery which indicates that water molecules may be distributed across the lunar surface, and not limited to the cold, shadowed places as previously thought.
Using NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), the researchers, including those from the University of Hawaii in the US, detected water molecules (H2O) in Clavius Crater -- one of the largest craters visible from the Earth, located in the Moon's southern hemisphere.
While earlier studies of the Moon's surface, including those conducted during the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1 mission, detected some form of hydrogen, the NASA scientists said these were unable to distinguish between water and its close chemical relative, hydroxyl (OH).
Data from the current study, published in the journal Nature Astronomy, revealed that the Clavius Crater region has water in concentrations of 100 to 412 parts per million -- roughly equivalent to a 12-ounce bottle of water -- trapped in a cubic meter of soil spread across the lunar surface.
As a comparison, the researchers said the Sahara desert has 100 times the amount of water than what SOFIA detected in the lunar soil.
"Prior to the SOFIA observations, we knew there was some kind of hydration. But we didn't know how much, if any, was actually water molecules -- like we drink every day -- or something more like drain cleaner," said Casey Honniball, the lead author of the study from the University of Hawaii.
Despite the small amounts, they said the discovery raises new questions about how water is created and how it persists on the harsh, airless lunar surface.
"We had indications that H2O -- the familiar water we know -- might be present on the sunlit side of the Moon. Now we know it is there. This discovery challenges our understanding of the lunar surface and raises intriguing questions about resources relevant for deep space exploration," said Paul Hertz, director of the Astrophysics Division in the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington.
Whether the water SOFIA found is easily accessible for use as a resource remains to be determined, the researchers added. According to the scientists, SOFIA offered a new means of looking at the Moon, flying at altitudes of up to 45,000 feet.
They said the modified Boeing 747SP jetliner with a 106-inch diameter telescope reaches above 99 per cent of the water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere to get a clearer view of radiation from the universe in the infrared wavelength.
Using its Faint Object infraRed CAmera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST), the researchers said SOFIA was able to pick up the specific wavelength unique to water molecules and discovered a relatively surprising concentration in the sunny Clavius Crater.
"Without a thick atmosphere, water on the sunlit lunar surface should just be lost to space. Yet somehow we're seeing it. Something is generating the water, and something must be trapping it there," Honniball said.
The scientists believe several forces could be at play in the delivery or creation of this water.
One possibility they said could be from micrometeorites raining down on the lunar surface, carrying small amounts of water, which may deposit the water on the lunar surface upon impact.
The researchers hypothesised that there may also be a two-step process whereby the Sun's solar wind delivers hydrogen to the lunar surface and causes a chemical reaction with oxygen-bearing minerals in the soil to create hydroxyl.
Meanwhile, they said radiation from the bombardment of micrometeorites could be transforming that hydroxyl into water.
Commenting on how the water was stored on the lunar surface, the scientists noted that the water could be trapped into tiny beadlike structures in the soil that form out of the high heat created by micrometeorite impacts.
Another possibility is that the water could be hidden between grains of lunar soil and sheltered from the sunlight --potentially making it a bit more accessible than water trapped in beadlike structures, they noted in a statement.
"It was, in fact, the first time SOFIA has looked at the Moon, and we weren't even completely sure if we would get reliable data, but questions about the Moon's water compelled us to try," said Naseem Rangwala, SOFIA's project scientist at NASA's Ames Research Center in the US.
"It's incredible that this discovery came out of what was essentially a test, and now that we know we can do this, we're planning more flights to do more observations," Rangwala added.
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World saw valour, courage of Indian armed forces through Operation Sindoor: President
New Delhi (PTI): President Droupadi Murmu on Wednesday said the world saw the valour of Indian armed forces through Operation Sindoor when they destroyed terror camps on the strength of their own resources and asserted that any terror act will be responded with decisive action.
"India has proved that power can be used with responsibility and wisdom. The world has seen the valour and courage of Indian armed forces through Operation Sindoor," Murmu said in her address to both Houses of Parliament, marking the beginning of the Budget Session.
"Our nation, on the strength of our own resources, destroyed terror camps. My government sent a message that any act of terror will be responded to with resolute and decisive action," the President said, amid thumping of desks by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other parliamentarians.
Murmu said the suspension of the Indus Water Treaty was part of India's fight against terror.
"We are also working on Mission Sudarshan Chakra to further strengthen national security," the President said, adding that security forces have also taken decisive action against Maoist terror.
Following Operation Sindoor, she said, the trust on Indian defence platforms has increased.
Murmu further said her government was committed to social justice in the country.
In the third term of the government, she said, work is being done to further empower the poor, and social security benefits are available to nearly 95 crore citizens now.
"My government is committed to true social justice," she said, adding that 25 crore Indians moved out of poverty in the last 10 years.
The President also said the government has been successful in tackling corruption and scams, and ensuring proper use of public funds.
"For India, the end of the first 25 years of this century has been filled with several successes, proud achievements and extraordinary experiences. In the last 10-11 years, India has strengthened its foundation in every sector," she said.
Lauding India's celebration of the 350th martyrdom day of the ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and the country's tribute to revered tribal leader and freedom fighter Birsa Munda on his 150th birth anniversary, Murmu said, "when the country remembers the contribution of its ancestors, the new generation gets inspiration, which further speeds up our journey towards Viksit Bharat (Developed India)."
"The country celebrated the 350th Shaheedi Diwas of Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji. During the 150th birth anniversary of Birsa Munda, the entire country paid him tribute and remembered his contribution to the tribal community," the President said.
"The events related to the 150th birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel further strengthened the sense of Ek Bharat, Shresht Bharat (One India, Best India). The entire country became witness to how Bharat Ratna Bhupen Hazarika's birth anniversary celebrations filled the country with music and a sense of unity," Murmu said.
The President's mention of the Viksit Bharat – Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) scheme was met with loud protests from the Opposition benches.
Murmu said the VB-G RAM G initiative would provide guarantee for 125 days of work, would stop corruption and leakages, and provide a new impetus to rural development.
The Opposition members raised slogans demanding its rollback, even as the treasury benches thumped their desk in support of the scheme.
The President had to take a brief pause amid opposition cries of "vapas lo" (roll back) against the Act that replaced the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).
The Opposition parties have been demanding withdrawal of the VB-G RAM G Act and restoration of MGNREGA as a rights-based law in its original form, the right to work and the authority of panchayats.
The government has, meanwhile, claimed that the new Act will further strengthen the guarantee for rural employment.
